<p>Sleep-disordered breathing reflects a continuum of overnight breathing difficulties, ranging from mild snoring to obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Sleep-disordered breathing in childhood is associated with significant adverse outcomes in multiple domains of functioning. This review summarizes the evidence of well-described ethnic, racial, and socioeconomic disparities in pediatric sleep-disordered breathing, from its prevalence to its treatment-related outcomes. Research on potential socio-ecological contributors to these disparities is also reviewed. Critical future research directions include the development of interventions that address the modifiable social and environmental determinants of these health disparities.</p>

<p><strong>OBJECTIVES: </strong>Wait time for emergency care is a quality measure that affects clinical outcomes and patient satisfaction. It is unknown if there is racial/ethnic variability in this quality measure in pediatric emergency departments (PEDs). We aim to determine whether racial/ethnic differences exist in wait times for children presenting to PEDs and examine between-site and within-site differences.</p>

<p><strong>METHODS: </strong>We conducted a retrospective cohort study for PED encounters in 2016 using the Pediatric Emergency Care Applied Research Network Registry, an aggregated deidentified electronic health registry comprising 7 PEDs. Patient encounters were included among all patients 18 years or younger at the time of the ED visit. We evaluated differences in emergency department wait time (time from arrival to first medical evaluation) considering patient race/ethnicity as the exposure.</p>

<p><strong>RESULTS: </strong>Of 448,563 visits, median wait time was 35 minutes (interquartile range, 17-71 minutes). Compared with non-Hispanic White (NHW) children, non-Hispanic Black (NHB), Hispanic, and other race children waited 27%, 33%, and 12% longer, respectively. These differences were attenuated after adjusting for triage acuity level, mode of arrival, sex, age, insurance, time of day, and month [adjusted median wait time ratios (95% confidence intervals): 1.11 (1.10-1.12) for NHB, 1.12 (1.11-1.13) for Hispanic, and 1.05 (1.03-1.06) for other race children compared with NHW children]. Differences in wait time for NHB and other race children were no longer significant after adjusting for clinical site. Fully adjusted median wait times among Hispanic children were longer compared with NHW children [1.04 (1.03-1.05)].</p>

<p><strong>CONCLUSIONS: </strong>In unadjusted analyses, non-White children experienced longer PED wait times than NHW children. After adjusting for illness severity, patient demographics, and overcrowding measures, wait times for NHB and other race children were largely determined by site of care. Hispanic children experienced longer within-site and between-site wait times compared with NHW children. Additional research is needed to understand structures and processes of care contributing to wait time differences between sites that disproportionately impact non-White patients.</p>

<p><b>BACKGROUND: </b>Acute gastroenteritis (AGE) is a common pediatric diagnosis in emergency medicine, accounting for 1.7 million visits annually. Little is known about racial/ethnic differences in care in the setting of standardized care models.</p><p><b>METHODS: </b>We used quality improvement data for children 6 months to 18 years presenting to a large, urban pediatric emergency department (ED) treated via a clinical pathway for AGE/dehydration between 2011 and 2018. Race/ethnicity was evaluated as a single variable (non-Hispanic [NH]-White, NH-Black, Hispanic, and NH-other) related to ondansetron and intravenous fluid (IVF) administration, ED length of stay (LOS), hospital admission, and ED revisits using multivariable regression.</p><p><b>RESULTS: </b>Of 30,849 ED visits for AGE/dehydration, 18.0% were NH-White, 57.2% NH-Black, 12.5% Hispanic, and 12.3% NH-other. Multivariable mixed-effects generalized linear regression controlling for age, sex, triage acuity, payor, and language revealed that, compared to NH-White patients, NH-other patients were more likely to receive ondansetron (aOR [95% CI] 1.30 [1.17, 1.43]). NH-Black, Hispanic, and NH-other patients were significantly less likely to receive IVF (0.59 [0.53, 0.65]; 0.74 [0.64, 0.84]; 0.74 [0.65, 0.85]) or be admitted to the hospital (0.54 [0.45, 0.64]; 0.62 [0.49, 0.78]; 0.76 [0.61, 0.94]), respectively. NH-Black and Hispanic patients had shorter LOS (median 245 minutes for NH-White, 176 NH-Black, 199 Hispanic, and 203 NH-other patients) without significant differences in ED revisits.</p><p><b>CONCLUSIONS: </b>Despite the presence of a clinical pathway to guide care, NH-Black, Hispanic, and NH-other children presenting to the ED with AGE/dehydration were less likely to receive IVF or hospital admission and had shorter LOS compared to NH-White counterparts. There was no difference in patient revisits which suggests discretionary overtreatment of NH-White patients, even with clinical guidelines in place. Further research is needed to understand the drivers of differences in care to develop interventions promoting equity in pediatric emergency care.</p>

<p><strong>BACKGROUND: </strong>Appendicitis is the most common surgical condition in pediatric emergency department (ED) patients. Prompt diagnosis can reduce morbidity, including appendiceal perforation. The goal of this study was to measure racial/ethnic differences in rates of: 1) appendiceal perforation; 2) delayed diagnosis of appendicitis; 3) diagnostic imaging during prior visit(s).</p>

<p><strong>METHODS: </strong>3-year multicenter (7 EDs) retrospective cohort study of children diagnosed with appendicitis using the Pediatric Emergency Care Applied Research Network Registry. Delayed diagnosis was defined as having at least one prior ED visit within 7 days preceding appendicitis diagnosis. We performed multivariable logistic regression to measure associations of race/ethnicity (non-Hispanic [NH]-white, NH-Black, Hispanic, Other) with: 1) appendiceal perforation; 2) delayed diagnosis of appendicitis; 3) diagnostic imaging during prior visit(s).</p>

<p><strong>RESULTS: </strong>Of 7298 patients with appendicitis and documented race/ethnicity, 2567 (35.2%) had appendiceal perforation. In comparison to NH-whites, NH-Black children had higher likelihood of perforation (36.5% vs. 34.9%; aOR 1.21 [95% CI 1.01, 1.45]). 206 (2.8%) had a delayed diagnosis of appendicitis. NH-Black children were more likely to have delayed diagnoses (4.7% vs. 2.0%; aOR 1.81 [1.09, 2.98]. Eighty-nine (43.2%) patients with delayed diagnosis had abdominal imaging during their prior visits. In comparison to NH-whites, NH-Black children were less likely to undergo any imaging (28.2% vs. 46.2%; aOR 0.41 [0.18, 0.96]), or definitive imaging (e.g. US/CT/MRI) (10.3% vs. 35.9%; aOR 0.15 [0.05, 0.50]) during prior visits.</p>

<p><strong>CONCLUSIONS: </strong>In this multicenter cohort, there were racial disparities in appendiceal perforation. There were also racial disparities in rates of delayed diagnosis of appendicitis and diagnostic imaging during prior ED visits. These disparities in diagnostic imaging may lead to delays in appendicitis diagnosis, and thus, may contribute to higher perforation rates demonstrated among minority children.</p>

<p><strong>OBJECTIVES: </strong>To test the hypotheses that minority children with long-bone fractures are less likely to (1) receive analgesics, (2) receive opioid analgesics, and (3) achieve pain reduction.</p>

<p><strong>METHODS: </strong>We performed a 3-year retrospective cross-sectional study of children &lt;18 years old with long-bone fractures using the Pediatric Emergency Care Applied Research Network Registry (7 emergency departments). We performed bivariable and multivariable logistic regression to measure the association between patient race and ethnicity and (1) any analgesic, (2) opioid analgesic, (3) ≥2-point pain score reduction, and (4) optimal pain reduction (ie, to mild or no pain).</p>

<p><strong>RESULTS: </strong>In 21 069 visits with moderate-to-severe pain, 86.1% received an analgesic and 45.4% received opioids. Of 8533 patients with reassessment of pain, 89.2% experienced ≥2-point reduction in pain score and 62.2% experienced optimal pain reduction. In multivariable analyses, minority children, compared with non-Hispanic (NH) white children, were more likely to receive any analgesics (NH African American: adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 1.72 [95% confidence interval 1.51-1.95]; Hispanic: 1.32 [1.16-1.51]) and achieve ≥2-point reduction in pain (NH African American: 1.42 [1.14-1.76]; Hispanic: 1.38 [1.04-1.83]) but were less likely to receive opioids (NH African American: aOR 0.86 [0.77-0.95]; Hispanic: aOR 0.86 [0.76-0.96]) or achieve optimal pain reduction (NH African American: aOR 0.78 [0.67-0.90]; Hispanic: aOR 0.80 [0.67-0.95]).</p>

<p><strong>CONCLUSIONS: </strong>There are differences in process and outcome measures by race and ethnicity in the emergency department management of pain among children with long-bone fractures. Although minority children are more likely to receive analgesics and achieve ≥2-point reduction in pain, they are less likely to receive opioids and achieve optimal pain reduction.</p>

<p><strong>OBJECTIVES: </strong>We assessed racial differences in sepsis recognition in a pediatric emergency department (ED) with an established electronic sepsis alert system.</p>

<p><strong>METHODS: </strong>Quality-improvement data from June 1, 2016 to May 31, 2017 was used in this retrospective cohort study. All ED visits were included for non-Hispanic black (NHB) and non-Hispanic white (NHW) patients. The sepsis pathway was activated through the alert, 2 stages and a huddle, or outside of the alert using clinician judgment alone. We evaluated racial differences in the frequency of alerts and sepsis pathway activation within and outside of the alert. Multivariable regression adjusted for high-risk condition, sex, age, and insurance.</p>

<p><strong>RESULTS: </strong>There were 97 338 ED visits: 56 863 (58.4%) and 23 008 (23.6%) from NHBs and NHWs, respectively. NHWs were more likely than NHBs to have a positive second alert (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 2.4; 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.1-2.8). NHWs were more likely than NHBs to have the sepsis pathway activated (aOR 1.4; 95% CI 1.02-2.1). Of those treated within the alert, there was no difference in pathway activation (aOR 0.93; 95% CI 0.62-1.4). Of those recognized by clinicians when the alert did not fire, NHWs were more likely than NHBs to be treated (aOR 3.4; 95% CI 1.8-6.4).</p>

<p><strong>CONCLUSIONS: </strong>NHWs were more likely than NHBs to be treated for sepsis, although this difference was specifically identified in the subset of patients treated for sepsis outside of the alert. This suggests that an electronic alert reduces racial differences compared with clinician judgment alone.</p>

<p><strong>BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: </strong>In the primary care setting, there are racial and ethnic differences in antibiotic prescribing for acute respiratory tract infections (ARTIs). Viral ARTIs are commonly diagnosed in the pediatric emergency department (PED), in which racial and ethnic differences in antibiotic prescribing have not been previously reported. We sought to investigate whether patient race and ethnicity was associated with differences in antibiotic prescribing for viral ARTIs in the PED.</p>

<p><strong>METHODS: </strong>This is a retrospective cohort study of encounters at 7 PEDs in 2013, in which we used electronic health data from the Pediatric Emergency Care Applied Research Network Registry. Multivariable logistic regression was used to examine the association between patient race and ethnicity and antibiotics administered or prescribed among children discharged from the hospital with viral ARTI. Children with bacterial codiagnoses, chronic disease, or who were immunocompromised were excluded. Covariates included age, sex, insurance, triage level, provider type, emergency department type, and emergency department site.</p>

<p><strong>RESULTS: </strong>Of 39 445 PED encounters for viral ARTIs that met inclusion criteria, 2.6% (95% confidence interval [CI] 2.4%-2.8%) received antibiotics, including 4.3% of non-Hispanic (NH) white, 1.9% of NH black, 2.6% of Hispanic, and 2.9% of other NH children. In multivariable analyses, NH black (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 0.44; CI 0.36-0.53), Hispanic (aOR 0.65; CI 0.53-0.81), and other NH (aOR 0.68; CI 0.52-0.87) children remained less likely to receive antibiotics for viral ARTIs.</p>

<p><strong>CONCLUSIONS: </strong>Compared with NH white children, NH black and Hispanic children were less likely to receive antibiotics for viral ARTIs in the PED. Future research should seek to understand why racial and ethnic differences in overprescribing exist, including parental expectations, provider perceptions of parental expectations, and implicit provider bias.</p>